Authors
-
Mohammad Abdul-Kareem MALALLAH
School Buildings Department, Nineveh Education Directorate, The Ministry of Education,
Iraq
0009-0004-8308-6125
-
Eethar Thanon DAWOOD
Northern Technical University,
Iraq
0000-0003-0509-2672
Abstract
A new method for designing the mix proportions of green concrete using slag has been proposed. The approach includes three different mixes: the first mix (1 : 2.62 : 4.87) used 275 kg/m3 of cement, the second mix (1 : 2.38 : 4.42) used 300 kg/m3 of cement, and the third mix (1 : 1.99 : 3.7) used 350 kg/m3 of cement. The green concrete mixes for these groups were produced with 35%, 40%, and 45% slag powder as partial replacement for the weight of cement. The results showed that the compressive strength of green concrete at 28 days for 35% substitution was approximately similar to that of the reference concrete. However, for 40% and 45% replacements, the compressive strength was reduced by 9.4% and 20.4%, respectively. Additionally, the CO2 emission and costs associated with producing 1 m3 of reference and green concrete were considered in this study. The incorporation of 35%, 40%, and 45% slag powder as a cement substitution reduced CO2 emissions by 24.7%, 28.7%, and 33.1%, and production costs by 16%, 16.8%, and 17.4%, respectively, compared to reference concrete. The suggested mix design approach for green concrete was developed using seven equations for preparing the mix proportion. Most of the equations achieved an R2 of about 0.9, except for the equation determining binder content, which had an R2 of about 0.8. The suggested approach depends on the compressive strength, slump, and superplasticizer dosage. The results show the ability of the proposed approach to achieve compressive strength higher than the design compressive strength.
Keywords:
green concrete, slag, cement, mix design, CO2 emission, cost.References
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2. Yurt Ü., An experimental study on fracture energy of alkali activated slag composites incorporated different fibers, Journal of Building Engineering, 32: 101519, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101519
3. Mehta P.K., Sustainable cements and concrete for the climate change era – A review, [In:] Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies, 2010.
4. Dawood E.T., Behavior of self-compacting concrete produced from recycled aggregate. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2213(1): 020023, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0000035
5. Omar A., Muthusamy K., Concrete Industry, Environment Issue, and Green Concrete: A Review, Construction, 2(1): 01–09, 2022, https://doi.org/10.15282/cons.v2i1.7188
6. Suhendro B., Toward green concrete for better sustainable environment, Procedia Engineering, 95: 305–320, 2014, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2014.12.190
7. Al-Hamrani A., Kucukvar M., Alnahhal W., Mahdi E., Onat N.C., Green concrete for a circular economy: A review on sustainability, durability, and structural properties, Materials, 14(2): 351, 2021, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14020351
8. Bakhoum E.S., Amir A., Osama F., Adel M., Prediction model for the compressive strength of green concrete using cement kiln dust and fly ash, Scientific Reports, 13(1): 1864, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-28868-7
9. Abed J.M., Khaleel B.A., Effect of wood waste as a partial replacement of cement, fine and coarse aggregate on physical and mechanical properties of concrete blocks units, International Journal of Integrated Engineering, 11(8): 229–239, 2019, https://doi.org/10.30880/ijie.2019.11.08.023
10. Shaikuthali S.A., Mannan M.A., Dawood E.T., Teo D.C.L., Ahmadi R., Ismail I., Workability and compressive strength properties of normal weight concrete using high dosage of fly ash as cement replacement, Journal of Building Pathology and Rehabilitation, 4(1): 26, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1007/s41024-019-0065-5
11. Allahverdi A., Maleki A., Mahinroosta M., Chemical activation of slag-blended Portland cement, Journal of Building Engineering, 18: 76–83, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.03.004
12. Shaaban M., Edris W.F., Odah E., Ezz M.S., Al-Sayed A.A.K.A., A green way of producing high strength concrete utilizing recycled concrete, Civil Engineering Journal, 9(10): 2467–2485, 2023, https://doi.org/10.28991/CEJ-2023-09-10-08
13. Elavarasan S., Priya A.K., Ajai N., Akash S., Annie T.J., Bhuvana G., Experimental study on partial replacement of cement by metakaolin and GGBS, Materials Today: Proceedings, 37(Part 2): 3527–3530, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.09.416
14. Aprianti S E., A huge number of artificial waste material can be supplementary cementitious material (SCM) for concrete production – a review part II, Journal of Cleaner Production, 142: 4178–4194, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.12.115
15. Dubey S., Singh A., Kushwah S.S., Utilization of iron and steel slag in building construction, AIP Conference Proceedings, 2158(1): 020032, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5127156
16. Dawood E.T., Mahmood M.S., Production of sustainable concrete brick units using nano-silica, Case Studies in Construction Materials, 14: e00498, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00498
17. Reddy M.S., Dinakar P., Rao B.H., Mix design development of fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag based geopolymer concrete, Journal of Building Engineering, 20: 712–722, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.09.010
18. Saranya P., Nagarajan P., Shashikala A.P., Eco-friendly GGBS concrete: a state-of-the-art review, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 330(1): 012057, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/330/1/012057
19. Kim S., Kim Y., Usman M., Park C., Hanif A., Durability of slag waste incorporated steel fiber-reinforced concrete in marine environment. Journal of Building Engineering, 33: 101641, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101641
20. Ziolkowski, P., Niedostatkiewicz, M., Machine learning techniques in concrete mix design, Materials, 12(8): 1256, 2019, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12081256
21. ASTM C150/150M-17: Standard Specification for Portland Cement. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, i, 1–4, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1520/C0150
22. No. 5: Iraqi Specifications for Portland Cement. Ministry of Planning, Central Organization for Standardization and Control Quality, 1984.
23. ASTM C128-15: Standard Test Method for Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Fine Aggregates, ASTM International, i, 15–20, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1520/C0128-15.2
24. ASTM C33/C33M−16: Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, i, 1–11, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1520/C0033
25. ASTM C127-15: Standard Test Method for Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 1–5, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1520/C0127-15.2
26. ASTM C989/C989M − 16: Standard Specification for Slag Cement for Use in Concrete and Mortars. ASTM Standard, 44, 1–8, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1520/C0989
27. ASTM C311/C311M−16: Standard Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Fly Ash or Natural Pozzolans for Use in Portland-Cement Concrete. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 04.02, 204–212, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1520/C0311
28. ASTM C494/C494M−17: Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete. ASTM International, 1–10, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1520/C0494
29. Flocrete SP42, High range concrete superplasticiser admixture, https://www.dcp-int.com/sites/default/files/downloadables/Flocrete%20SP42_TDS_4.pdf
30. ASTM C192/C192M − 16a: Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Laboratory. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 1–8, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1520/C0192
31. Teychenné D.C., Franklin R.E., Erntroy H.C., Design of Normal Concrete Mixes, London, CRC Ltd., 1997.
32. BS 8500-1:2006: Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1 Part 1: Method of specifying and guidance for the specifier, British Standards Institution, 2015.
33. BS 8500-2:2006: Concrete – Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1 Part 2: Specification for constituent materials and concrete, British Standards Institution, 2015.
34. BS 8110-1:1997: Structural use of concrete - Code of practice for design and construction (Withdrawn), British Standard Institution, 1997.
35. Zareei S.A., Ameri F., BahramiN., Shoaei, P., Moosaei H.R., Salemi N., Performance of sustainable high strength concrete with basic oxygen steel-making (BOS)slag and nano-silica, Journal of Building Engineering, 25: 100791, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100791
36. Roslan N.H., Ismail M., Abdul-Majid Z., Ghoreishiamiri S., Muhammad B., Performance of steel slag and steel sludge in concrete, Construction and Building Materials, 104: 16–24, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.12.008
37. Roslan N.H., Ismail M., Khalid N.H.A., Muhammad B., Properties of concrete containing electric arc furnace steel slag and steel sludge, Journal of Building Engineering, 28: 101060, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.101060
38. Yang J.W., Wang Q., Yan P.Y., Bo Z., Influence of steel slag on the workability of concrete, Key Engineering Materials, 539: 235–238, 2013, https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.539.235
39. Wang Q., Yan P., Yang J., Zhang B., Influence of steel slag on mechanical properties and durability of concrete, Construction and Building Materials, 47: 1414–1420, 2013, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.06.044
40. Jiang Y., Ling T.C., Shi C., Pan S.Y., Characteristics of steel slags and their use in cement and concrete – A review, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 136: 187–197, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.04.023
41. Talib Khalid W.T., Qazi O., Abdirizak A.M., Rashid R.S.M., Comparison of different waste materials used as cement replacement in concrete, IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 357(1): 012010, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/357/1/012010
42. Piemonti A., Conforti A., Cominoli L., Sorlini S., Luciano A., Plizzari G., Use of iron and steel slags in concrete: State of the art and future perspectives, Sustainability, 13(2): 556, 2021, https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020556
43. Chi M.C., Chi J.H., Wu C.H., Effect of GGBFS on compressive strength and durability of concrete, Advanced Materials Research, 1145: 22–26, 2018, https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.1145.22
44. Saluja S., Goyal S., Bhattacharjee B., Strength properties of roller compacted concrete containing GGBS as partial replacement of cement, Journal of Engineering Research, 7(1): 1–17, 2019.
45. Cheah C.B., Tiong L.L., Ng E.P., Oo C.W., The engineering performance of concrete containing high volume of ground granulated blast furnace slag and pulverized fly ash with polycarboxylate-based superplasticizer, Construction and Building Materials, 202: 909–921, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.01.075
46. Zhao C., Liu Y., Ren S., Quan J., Study on carbon emission calculation method of concrete. Key Engineering Materials, 768: 293–305, 2018, https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.768.293
47. Kim T.H., Chae C.U., Kim G.H., Jang H.J., Analysis of CO2 emission characteristics of concrete used at construction sites, Sustainability, 8(4): 348, 2016, https://doi.org/10.3390/su8040348
48. Jiménez L.F., Domínguez J.A., Vega-Azamar R.E., Carbon footprint of recycled aggregate concrete, Advances in Civil Engineering, 2018(1): 7949741, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/7949741
49. Nanayakkara O., Gunasekara C., Sandanayake M., Law D.W., Nguyen K., Xia J., Setunge S., Alkali activated slag concrete incorporating recycled aggregate concrete: Long term performance and sustainability aspect, Construction and Building Materials, 271: 121512, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121512
50. Miller S.A., Supplementary cementitious materials to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from concrete: can there be too much of a good thing?, Journal of Cleaner Production, 178: 587–598, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.01.008
51. Gao T., Dai T., Shen L., Jiang L., Benefits of using steel slag in cement clinker production for environmental conservation and economic revenue generation, Journal of Cleaner Production, 282: 124538, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124538
52. Li Y., Liu Y., Gong X., Nie Z., Cui S., Wang Z., Chen W., Environmental impact analysis of blast furnace slag applied to ordinary Portland cement production, Journal of Cleaner Production, 120: 221–230, 2016, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.12.071
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